Literature 2

Vocabulary Development
References TESOL Quarterly
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Our goal is that children who are English language learners develop a foundation of oral and written English proficiency that is necessary to become independent readers of English. Vocabulary development is essential for achieving this proficiency and for developing the background knowledge that they need to understand both stories and academic texts.
All children need opportunities to develop their natural love of words and to grow in their understanding of the intricacies and subtleties of the English language in an environment rich in literature and language experiences.
As English language learners strive to achieve the vocabulary knowledge they need to comprehend independently, teachers must provide them with the instructional support, the scaffolding that they need. The research in this Set examines how children develop their English proficiency and includes instructional guidance that teachers can use in their classroom.
English language learners face the following hurdles in their vocabulary learning:
Children have not had time to develop an adequate English vocabulary before they must read English texts in school. The lack of an adequate vocabulary is one of the largest obstacles to their reading comprehension that is essential for their success in school.
Children who have become proficient in conversational, social English may still struggle with the vocabulary required for academic reading.
English language learners also have a smaller initial vocabulary than many native speakers do.
Research has shown, as children mature, the achievement gap widens between those who have achieved higher levels of initial vocabulary and those who have not. They need the assistance of teachers to develop their vocabulary and close the gap.
Children who are English language learners also bring to their learning of English the background knowledge and reading strategies that they know in their first language. As much as possible we need to provide children with the opportunities to use their first language to access that knowledge to help them better understand a topic, text, and instructional directions.
In this Set we examine the following questions:
What is the role of vocabulary development in academic achievement?
What does the research tell us about the role of oral English proficiency and the role of the first language in English reading comprehension?
What does research tell us about teaching vocabulary strategies explicitly to second language learners in the classroom?
Why do English language learners need explicit teaching strategies for developing their vocabulary?
What research studies and teaching materials are available to assist teachers in developing the vocabulary of their English language learners?


What is the role of vocabulary development in academic achievement?
This classic study, using observation and interviews with children, parents and teachers, provides an in-depth and comprehensive look at how children adapt and learn English both socially and academically.
Value
1. The study documents how children learn English, achieve or falter in academic reading, communicate socially and play without a common language. In the study are transcripts of dialogues between children and examples of their problem solving that teachers can use to understand their own English language learners.
Design
2. The study looks at 19 children in grades 2-6 who began the school year not knowing English; they spoke seven different languages including both alphabetic and non-alphabetic scripts. The study focuses on the children and includes examples of their ways of learning and playing.
3. In doing the study, the researchers videotaped ESL classes during the unsupervised time before class and during instruction.
4. Children were interviewed at the end of the year and evaluated for the content and grammatical correctness of their conversation.
5. Interviews with parents and teachers provided information on home language and personality factors. Academic achievement was measured by the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS).
Findings: Academic achievement
6. Children need to develop their vocabulary knowledge; it is the single most important aspect of oral English proficiency for academic reading.
7. Children did not need to achieve mastery of English grammatical structure or grammatical accuracy for immediate success in their academic reading.
8. Children who have the opportunity to discuss academic concepts in their first language (L1), achieve greater success academically in their second language (L2).
9. Skill at social communication was not sufficient for academic achievement. For example:
The highest achiever was not socially talkative. Instead, she daily translated Japanese sentences into English using a bilingual dictionary. She studied the differences in word order of English and Japanese and excelled in reading Japanese.
Findings: Social communication
10. Children can and do participate in a great deal of social activity with little or no common language including the use of pantomime to tell a joke.
11. Additional strategies included exchanging non-linguistic vocalizations, pointing, nodding, and pantomime.
12. English-speaking children taught games to non-English speakers by demonstrating what to do and by correcting mistakes with a simple “no” or with a physical intervention.
Limitations
13. The study is ethnographic; therefore, it is representative of these children at the time of the research. Generalizing to other English language learners, other places, and other times needs to be done cautiously.
See reference for the researchWhat really matters in second language learning for academic achievement?
See additional references ethnographic research on understanding and learning the culture of the classroom The ethnography of communicationWays with words
See Tapestry Set: Academic Reading
See Tapestry Set: Story ComprehensionWhat does the research tell us about an example of culturally aligned curriculum?

What does the research tell us about the role of oral English proficiency and role of the first language in English reading comprehension?
Study 1: Examining the role of oral language proficiency in the second language
In Korea, researchers examined the relationship between achievement of English oral language proficiency and English reading comprehension for evidence of threshold hypothesis with 809 middle school English language learners.
According to the threshold hypothesis, second language learners need to develop a threshold of oral language proficiency in their second language (L2) before they can apply the skills and strategies, prior knowledge and language experiences of reading their first language (L1) to the reading of their second language.
Design
1. The students showed a wide range of achievement in English oral proficiency and in their Korean and English reading.
2. Oral proficiency was defined by written vocabulary measures (synonyms, definitions, and analogies) and by written measures of grammar (e.g. verb usage, plurals, pronouns, questions, and negations).
Findings
3. The researchers found support for the threshold hypothesis. Learners who had achieved high scores of English oral proficiency also achieved higher scores in their reading comprehension.
4. In their initial analysis, oral proficiency was twice as helpful as L1 reading ability for the learners’ L2 reading comprehension skills and strategies.
Limitations
5. The study’s usefulness for teachers is limited. Although it provides evidence supporting the importance of L2 oral proficiency and a general definition of English oral proficiency, classroom guidelines are not included. The study uses a written measure of oral proficiency.
6. Replication would need to include a verbal measure of oral proficiency. Research needs to determine if there is one threshold or if the threshold varies according to child, each child’s language status, the text, and the task.
Teaching implications
7. For teachers who want to work with their students on their L2 oral proficiency, we have included resources for teaching practice in the Bibliography of this Set.
See the reference of the study for a discussion of the threshold hypothesisThe relative contribution of L2 language proficiency and L1 reading ability to L2 reading performance: A test of the threshold hypothesis in an EFL context
See references for research-based teaching practiceBringing words to life: Robust Vocabulary InstructionNew ways in teaching vocabulary
See in Tapestry Set Foundations of Emerging Literacy What does the research tell us about phonological awareness? (Study 1 and Study2)
Study 2: Examining the role of oral language proficiency in the second language
In the United States with 6 fifth-grade English language learners whose first language was Spanish, researchers found that children who are able to read English independently also scored high on measures of oral language proficiency.
Design of the study
1. This study provides a comprehensive definition of oral proficiency that includes fluency (number of words), semantic content (number of subject-verb clauses), grammatical complexity (length of statements, use of relative and subordinate clauses), and well-formedness (grammatical correctness).
2. As measures of their oral proficiency, each child told a story in Spanish and English about a set of pictures. The study includes samples of their responses.
Findings
3. Results showed that children who scored low on English oral proficiency also scored low in English comprehension. Their difficulties included limited vocabulary knowledge and lack of sensitivity to syntax. Their scores for Spanish comprehension were high, giving evidence that they were able to comprehend written texts.
4. Children also did a line-by-line reading of the texts to measure their comprehension. Although children’s comprehension improved during the line-by-line reading, the study does not provide information on how to do the reading.
Limitations
5. Replication of the study would need to include larger samples representative of English language learners. Research needs to define and measure oral proficiency.
6. Research needs to determine if there is one threshold or if the threshold varies according to each child and his or her language status, the text, and the task.
Teaching implications
7. For teachers who want to work with their students on their L2 oral proficiency, we have included resources for teaching practice in the Bibliography of this Set.
See reference for the research study for criteria for measuring oral language proficiency
Relationships between second language oral proficiency and reading comprehension of bilingual fifth grade students
See in this Tapestry SetWhat does the research tell us about teaching vocabulary strategies explicitly to English language learners?
For studies on the impact of oral proficiency on text comprehension (Study 1 and Study2), see Tapestry Set Foundations of Emerging Literacy What does the research tell us about phonological awareness?
See in Tapestry Set Story ComprehensionWhat does the research tell us about vocabulary acquisition from storybook reading?


What does the research tell us about teaching vocabulary strategies explicitlyto second language learners in the classroom?
The major goal of this study was to measure the effectiveness of explicitly teaching word-learning strategies.
Value of the study
1. The study recognized the role of the English language learners’ first language in learning the subject and in text comprehension.
2. The study provides an instructional model for teaching word-knowing strategies that improves the comprehension of English language learners and English-only learners.
Design
3. The children were 142 fifth graders and included both English only speakers and English language learners whose first language was Spanish. The children attended schools in California, Massachusetts, and Virginia.
Curriculum materials
4. The curriculum was culturally aligned to support the English language learners in the following ways:
a. The children studied “Immigration”. Most of the English language learners were immigrants and it was thought they would find the topic intrinsically interesting.
b. Teaching materials were given to Spanish speakers before the lesson so children would be able to access the background knowledge they brought to the topic in their first language;
c. Spanish-speaking learners had opportunities to teach, e.g. how to recognize root words found in both Spanish and English.
5. Curriculum materials were taken from newspaper articles, diaries, personal accounts of the immigrant experience, literature, and historical accounts. Examples of the curriculum materials are included in the Appendices of the research study.
6. The instruction focused on teaching word-knowing strategies. Research has shown that it is more effective to teach strategies than large numbers of words directly. Teaching resources used to develop the strategies are included in the Bibliography.
7. Teaching word-knowing strategies used the following principles:
a. Introduce words in context of interesting text;
b. Design activities that encourage the analysis and manipulation of words;
c. Give children practice in writing and spelling the target words several times;
d. Use words repetitively throughout the learning unit;
e. Teach children strategies for inferring the meaning of unfamiliar words.
8. Words selected were academic words of medium frequency and used frequently through study.
a. Words selected provided opportunities for teaching children about the English language, e.g. inferring from context, root words, affixes, spelling and pronunciation, and the multiple meanings of words.
b. Examples of words taught in the study include “humanity”, “reformer”, and “congregate”.
Findings
9. The results showed that for both monolingual speakers and English language learners, the explicit instruction of word-learning strategies was effective in learning new words and in improving reading comprehension.
Limitations
10. Not all classroom teachers have the resources for bringing the child’s first language into instruction. Although teachers can use the word-knowing strategies and curriculum resources, it cannot be generalized from the research that the intervention is effective in classrooms in which learners do not have the instructional support of their first language.
See reference for the research study that includes examples of teaching materials
Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs of English-language learners in bilingual and mainstream classroomsSee reference for additional research Percentage of unknown vocabulary words in text as function of the relative function of the relative difficulty of the text: Implications for instruction
See research-based teaching practices used to develop the curriculum materials in the study
Bringing word to life, robust vocabulary instructionThree principles of effective vocabulary instruction
See additional teaching practice resources
New ways in teaching vocabulary
Why do English language learners need explicit teaching strategies for developing their vocabulary?

What research studies and teaching materials are available to assist teachersin developing the vocabulary of their English language learners?
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TAPESTRY OF VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT
What is the role of vocabulary development in academic achievement?
Saville-Troke, M. (1984). What really matters in second language learning for academic achievement? TESOL Quarterly, 18(2), 199 – 219.
Saville-Troke, M. (2003). The ethnography of communication: An introduction. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
Heath, S. B. (1984). Ways with words: Language, life and work in communities and classrooms. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.
What does the research tell us about the role of oral English proficiency and of the role of the first language in English reading comprehension in the classroom?
Lee, J. & Schallert, D. L. (1997). The relative contribution of L1 language proficiency and L1 reading ability to L2 reading performance: A test of the threshold hypothesis in an EFL context. TESOL Quarterly, 31(4), 713 – 739.
Peregoy, S. (1989). Relationships between second language proficiency and reading comprehension of bilingual fifth grade students. NABE Journal, 13(3), 217-234.
Nation, P., Ed. (1994). New ways in teaching vocabulary. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Beck, I., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing word to life, robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford.
What does research tell us about teaching vocabulary strategies explicitly to second language learners?
Carlo, M. S., August, D., McLaughlin, B., Snow, C. E., Dressler, C., Lippman, D. N., Lively, T.J., & White, C. E. (2004). Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs of English-language learners in bilingual and mainstream classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 39(2), 188 - 215.
Beck, I., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing word to life, robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford.
Carver, R.P. (1994). Percentage of unknown vocabulary words in the text as a function of the relative difficulty of the text: Implications for instruction. Journal of Reading Behavior. 26, 413 – 437.
Stahl, S. A. (1986). Three principles of effective vocabulary instruction. Journal of Reading Behavior. 29, 662 – 668.
Nation, P., Ed. (1994). New ways in teaching vocabulary. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
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Why do English language learners need explicit teaching of strategies for developing their vocabulary?

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Annotation

In “Vocabulary Development” , the author declares that to help children, English language learners, to become independent readers of English, vocabulary development is essential for achieving oral and written English proficiency and for developing the background knowledge that they need to understand both stories and academic texts. As English language learners strive to achieve the vocabulary knowledge they need to comprehend independently, teachers must provide them with the instructional support, the scaffolding that they need. The research examines how children develop their English proficiency and includes instructional guidance that teachers can use in their classroom. Research has shown, as children mature, the achievement gap widens between those who have achieved higher levels of initial vocabulary and those who have not. They need the assistance of teachers to develop their vocabulary and close the gap. Children who are English language learners also bring to their learning of English the background knowledge and reading strategies that they know in their first language. In this Set five questions are examined: 1 What is the role of vocabulary development in academic achievement? 2 What does the research tell us about the role of oral English proficiency and the role of the first language in English reading comprehension? 3 What does research tell us about teaching vocabulary strategies explicitly to second language learners in the classroom? 4 Why do English language learners need explicit teaching strategies for developing their vocabulary? 5 What research studies and teaching materials are available to assist teachers in developing the vocabulary of their English language learners?
I will focus in the third studies in the following.
Annotation of “What does the research tell us about teaching vocabulary strategies explicitlyto second language learners in the classroom?”
The major goal of this study was to measure the effectiveness of explicitly teaching word-learning strategies. And the Value of the study lies in the role of the English language learners’ first language and the improvement of English learning with instruction of word-knowing strategies. Both English-speaking and Spanish-speaking children learning English were included in the curriculum which was culturally aligned to support the English language learners.
I found something in the research interested for me: Firstly, I think the intrinsically interesting topic is an important factor for the learners to get involved in the study since the children studied “Immigration” and most of them were immigrants. Secondly, teaching materials were given to Spanish speakers before the lesson so children would be able to access the background knowledge they brought to the topic in their first language. I think teaching should be based on leaners’ current level and teachers can add additional challenging work on it to facilitate them to learn. Even though nowadays more and more peple emphasize the importance of foreign language asserting whole- English learning condition, wiping off the postive function of native language, I still consent with the findinds of the research that sometimes first language work addictively for beginning learners and provide thwm with enough backgroud knowledge. Thirdly, the Spanish-speaking learners had opportunities to teach, e.g. how to recognize root words found in both Spanish and English. Moreover, the urriculum materials were taken from newspaper articles, diaries, personal accounts of the immigrant experience, literature, and historical accounts. Form the examples of the curriculum materials, I assume that using authentic materials relevent to their lives woulb be also a factor in helping successful learning.
Most interedted to me is that research has shown that it is more effective to teach strategies than large numbers of words directly. So I will learn to apply the principles of the instruction in teaching word-knowing strategies: I will tey to introduce words in context of interesting text, and use relevent materials associated with learners’ lives to make learning more meaningful and make students intrinsically motivated; Secondly, I will try to design activities that encourage the analysis and manipulation of words and, thirdly to give children more practices in writing and spelling the target words several times. Thus the students can work on their own and learn to think or solve a problem by themselves using creativity; Fourthly, I will also try to use words repetitively throughout the learning unit to emphasize their impression and aid their memory in learning vocabulary; Finally, I will alos teach children strategies for inferring the meaning of unfamiliar words from the contexts. I will encourage them to find clues in the surronding environment to guess wisely the meanings of unfamiliar words. Furthermore, I think that the acdemic words selected with medium frequency and used frequently through study will help leaners to become familiar with it. Since the words selected provided opportunities for teaching children about the English language, e.g. inferring from context, root words, affixes, spelling and pronunciation, and the multiple meanings of words, they learn the words sucessfully in the end. This research provides the results that for both monolingual speakers and English language learners, the explicit instruction of word-learning strategies was effective in learning new words and in improving reading comprehension. And I also agree with this point of view that providing these helpful strategies will be useful in aiding vacabulary learning.